Monday, September 30, 2019

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Designing Effective Projects: Thinking Skills Frameworks Bloom’s Taxonomy: A New Look at an Old Standby Traditional Hierarchy of Thinking Processes In 1956, Benjamin Bloom wrote Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain, and his six-level description of thinking has been widely adapted and used in countless contexts ever since. His list of cognitive processes is organized from the most simple, the recall of knowledge, to the most complex, making judgments about the value and worth of an idea. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Traditional) Skill Knowledge DefinitionRecall information Comprehension Understand the meaning, paraphrase a concept Use the information or concept in a new situation Break information or concepts into parts to understand it more fully Put ideas together to form something new Make judgments about value Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Key Words Identify, describe, name, label, recognize, reproduce, follow Summarize, co nvert, defend, paraphrase, interpret, give examples Build, make, construct, model, predict, prepare Compare/contrast, break down, distinguish, select, separate Categorize, generalize, reconstructAppraise, critique, judge, justify, argue, support Today’s world is a different place, however, than the one Bloom’s Taxonomy reflected in 1956. Educators have learned a great deal more about how students learn and teachers teach and now recognize that teaching and learning encompasses more than just thinking. It also involves the feelings and beliefs of students and teachers as well as the social and cultural environment of the classroom. Several cognitive psychologists have worked to make the basic concept of a taxonomy of thinking skills more relevant and accurate.In developing his own taxonomy of educational objectives, Marzano (2000) points out one criticism of Bloom’s Taxonomy. The very structure of the Taxonomy, moving from the simplest level of knowledge to the m ost difficult level of evaluation, is not supported by research. A hierarchical taxonomy implies that each higher skill is composed of the skills beneath it; comprehension requires knowledge; application requires comprehension and knowledge, and so on. This, according to Marzano, is simply not true of the cognitive processes in Bloom’s Taxonomy.The originators of the original six thinking processes assumed that complex projects could be labeled as requiring one of the processes more than the others. A task was primarily an â€Å"analysis† or an â€Å"evaluation† task. This has been proven not to be true which may account for the difficulty that educators have classifying challenging learning activities using the Taxonomy. Anderson (2000) argues that nearly all complex learning activities require the use of several different cognitive skills. Like any theoretical model, Bloom’s Taxonomy has its strengths and weaknesses.Its greatest strength is that it has taken the very important topic of thinking and placed a structure around it that is usable by practitioners. Those teachers who keep a list of question prompts relating to the various levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy undoubtedly do a better job of encouraging higher-order thinking in their students than those who have no such tool. On the other hand, as anyone who has worked with a group of educators to classify a group of questions and learning activities according to the Taxonomy can attest, there is little consensus about what seemingly self-evident erms like â€Å"analysis,† or â€Å"evaluation† mean. In addition, so many worthwhile activities, such as authentic problems and projects, cannot be mapped to the Taxonomy, and trying to do that would diminish their potential as learning opportunities. Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy In 1999, Dr. Lorin Anderson, a fromer student of Bloom's, and his colleagues published an updated version of Bloom’s Taxonomy that takes into account a broader range of factors that have an impact on teaching and learning. This revised taxonomy attempts to correct some of the problems with the original taxonomy.Unlike the 1956 version, the revised taxonomy differentiates between â€Å"knowing what,† the content of thinking, and â€Å"knowing how,† the procedures used in solving problems. The Knowledge Dimension is the â€Å"knowing what. † It has four categories: factual, conceptual, procedural, and metacognitive. Factual knowledge includes isolated bits of information, such as vocabulary definitions and knowledge about specific details. Conceptual knowledge consists of systems of information, such as classifications and categories.Procedural knowledge includes algorithms, heuristics or rules of thumb, techniques, and methods as well as knowledge about when to use these procedures. Metacognitive knowledge refers to knowledge of thinking processes and information about how to manipulate thes e processes effectively. The Cognitive Process Dimension of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy like the original version has six skills. They are, from simplest to most complex: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. Remembering Remembering consists of recognizing and recalling relevant information from long-term memory.Understanding Understanding is the ability to make your own meaning from educational material such as reading and teacher explanations. The subskills for this process include interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining. Applying The third process, applying, refers to using a learned procedure either in a familiar or new situation. Analysis The next process is analysis, which consists of breaking knowledge down into its parts and thinking about how the parts relate to its overall structure.Students analyze by differentiating, organizing, and attributing. Evaluation Evaluation, which is at the top of the original taxonomy, is the fifth of the six processes in the revised version. It includes checking and critiquing. Creating Creating, a process not included in the earlier taxonomy, is the highest component of the new version. This skill involves putting things together to make something new. To accomplish creating tasks, learners generate, plan, and produce.According to this taxonomy, each level of knowledge can correspond to each level of cognitive process, so a student can remember factual or procedural knowledge, understand conceptual or metacognitive knowledge, or analyze metacognitive or factual knowledge. According to Anderson and his colleagues, â€Å"Meaningful learning provides students with the knowledge and cognitive processes they need for successful problem solving†. The following charts list examples of each skill of the Cognitive and Knowledge Dimensions. Cognitive Processes Dimensions Cognitive ProcessesExamples Remembering—Produce the right informa tion from memory Recognizing †¢ Identify frogs in a diagram of different kinds of amphibians. †¢ Find an isosceles triangle in your neighborhood. †¢ Answer any true-false or multiple-choice questions. Recalling †¢ Name three 19th-century women English authors. †¢ Write the multiplication facts. †¢ Reproduce the chemical formula for carbon tetrachloride. Understanding—Make meaning from educational materials or experiences Interpreting †¢ Translate a story problem into an algebraic equation. †¢ Draw a diagram of the digestive system. Paraphrase Jawaharlal Nehru's tryst with destiny speech. Exemplifying †¢ Draw a parallelogram. †¢ Find an example of stream-of-consciousness style of writing. †¢ Name a mammal that lives in our area. Classifying †¢ Label numbers odd or even. †¢ List the events of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. †¢ Group native animals into their proper species. Summarizing †¢ Make up a title for a short passage. †¢ List the key points related to capital punishment that the Web site promotes. Inferring †¢ Read a passage of dialogue between two characters and make conclusions about their past relationship. Figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar term from the context. †¢ Look at a series of numbers and predict what the next number will be. Comparing †¢ Explain how the heart is like a pump. †¢ Compare Mahatma Gandhi to a present day leader. †¢ Use a Venn diagram to demonstrate how two books by Charles Dickens are similar and different. Explaining †¢ Draw a diagram explaining how air pressure affects the weather. †¢ Provide details that justify why the French Revolution happened when and how it did. †¢ Describe how interest rates affect the economy. Applying—Use a procedure Executing Add a column of two-digit numbers. †¢ Orally read a passage in a foreign language. †¢ Have a student open house discussion. Implementing †¢ Design an experiment to see how plants grow in different kinds of soil. †¢ Proofread a piece of writing. †¢ Create a budget. Analyzing—Break a concept down into its parts and describe how the parts relate to the whole Differentiating †¢ List the important information in a mathematical word problem and cross out the unimportant information. †¢ Draw a diagram showing the major and minor characters in a novel. Organizing †¢ Place the books in the classroom library into categories. Make a chart of often-used figurative devices and explain their effect. †¢ Make a diagram showing the ways plants and animals in your neighborhood interact with each other. Attributing †¢ Read letters to the editor to determine the authors’ points of view about a local issue. †¢ Determine a character’s motivation in a novel or short story. †¢ Look at brochures of political candidates and hypothesize about their perspectives on issues. Evaluating—Make judgments based on criteria and syllabus guidelines Checking †¢ Participate in a writing group, giving peers feedback on organization and logic of arguments. Listen to a political speech and make a list of any contradictions within the speech. †¢ Review a project plan to see if all the necessary steps are included. Critiquing †¢ Judge how well a project meets the criteria of a rubric. †¢ Choose the best method for solving a complex mathematical problem. †¢ Judge the validity of arguments for and against astrology. Creating—Put pieces together to form something new or recognize components of a new structure. Generating †¢ Given a list of criteria, list some options for improving race relations in the school. †¢ Generate several scientific hypotheses to explain why plants need sunshine. Propose a set of alternatives for reducing dependence on fossil fuels that address both economic and environmental concerns. †¢ Com e up with alternative hypotheses based on criteria. Planning †¢ Make a storyboard for a multimedia presentation on insects. †¢ Outline a research paper on Mark Twain’s views on religion. †¢ Design a scientific study to test the effect of different kinds of music on hens’ egg production. Producing †¢ Write a journal from the point of view of mountaineer. †¢ Build a habitat for pigeons. †¢ Put on a play based on a chapter from a novel you’re reading. The Knowledge DimensionFactual Knowledge—Basic information Knowledge of terminology Vocabulary terms, mathematical symbols, musical notation, alphabet Knowledge of specific details and Components of the Food Pyramid, names of elements congressional representatives, major battles of WWII Conceptual Knowledge—The relationships among pieces of a larger structure that make them function together Knowledge of classifications and Species of animals, different kinds of arguments, c ategories geological eras Knowledge of principles and Types of conflict in literature, Newton’s Laws of Motion, generalizations principles of democracyKnowledge of theories, models, and Theory of evolution, economic theories, DNA models structures Procedural Knowledge—How to do something Knowledge of subject-specific skills Procedure for solving quadratic equations, mixing colors and algorithms for oil painting, serving a volleyball Knowledge of subject-specific Literary criticism, analysis of historical documents, techniques and methods mathematical problem-solving methods Knowledge of criteria for Methods appropriate for different kinds of experiments, determining when to use statistical analysis procedures used for different ppropriate procedures situations, syllabus guidelines for different genres of writing Metacognitive Knowledge—Knowledge of thinking in general and your thinking in particular Strategic knowledge Ways of memorizing facts, reading comprehen sion strategies, methods of planning a Web site Knowledge about cognitive tasks, Different reading demands of textbooks and novels; including appropriate contextual thinking ahead when using an electronic database; and conditional knowledge differences between writing emails and writing business letters Self-knowledge Need for a diagram or chart to understand complex rocesses, better comprehension in quiet environments, need to discuss ideas with someone before writing an essay References Anderson, L. W. & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. New York: Longman. Bloom, B. S. , (Ed. ). 1956. Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals: Handbook I, cognitive domain. New York: Longman. Costa, A. L. (Ed. ). (2000). Developing minds: A resource book for teaching thinking. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Marzano, R. J. (2000). Designing a new taxonomy of educational objectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Deliver, monitor and evaluate customer service to internal customers Essay

LEVEL 3 DIPLOMA IN BUSINESS & ADMINISTRATION Unit 328 – Deliver, monitor and evaluate customer service to internal customers – Knowledge Questions 1. Understand the meaning of internal customer 1.1Describe what is meant by internal customer Internal customers are people within your own organisation such as employers or colleagues who you provide a service for, e.g. 2. Know the types of products and services relevant to internal customers 2.1 Describe the products and services offered by own organisation to internal customers 3. Understand how to deliver customer service that meets or exceeds internal customer expectations 3.1 Explain the purpose and value of identifying internal customer needs and expectations 3.2 Explain why customer service must meet or exceed internal customer expectations 3.3 Explain the value of meeting or exceeding internal customers expectations 3.4 Explain the purpose and value of building positive working relationships 4. Understand the purpose of quality standards and timescales for delivering customer service 4.1 Identify quality standards for own organisation and work 4.2 Explain the value of agreeing quality standards and timescales 4.3 Explain how to set and meet quality standards and timescales with internal customers 5. Understand how to deal with internal customer service problems 5.1 Describe the types of problems that internal customers may have 5.2 Explain ways of dealing with problems 5.3 Explain the purpose and value of a complaints procedure, if applicable 6. Understand how to monitor and evaluate internal customer service and the benefits of this 6.1 Explain the purpose and benefits of monitoring internal customer satisfaction and how to do so 6.2 Describe techniques for collecting and evaluating customer feedback 6.3 explain the benefits of continuous improvement

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Environmental Pollution Scenario Review and Summary Research Paper

Environmental Pollution Scenario Review and Summary - Research Paper Example The paper "Environmental Pollution Scenario Review and Summary" analyzes environmental pollution scenario. There are seven measures we are to choose from as the budget allows to implement only 4 of them. Thus, when deciding which ones to choose, it is essential to use the method of elimination. In other words, it is important to define three measures, which are not very efficient and will not bring appreciable results. First of all, it is encouraging carpooling. This measure is not efficient in the modern world, as all the people have cars. In any case, they would prefer to use their own cars instead of waiting for a bus. People buy cars to make their way to work comfortable, because public transportation is not comfortable enough. This method could have been effective twenty years ago, but not now. Moreover, people want to be free and not to adjust to buses’ schedule. Buses will not be used by people, and the introduction of them will just add to the environmental pollution. The same can be stated about the encouraging of alternative transportation. People know pretty well that walking is useful for their health, but when they risk being late for work in the morning, they usually do not think about this usefulness. Several extra minutes spent drinking coffee in the morning are valuable for many people with an active way of life. They buy cars to have these extra minutes. Pollution control legislation for point sources also will not bring good results as people usually do not approve. of such laws and they do not work. The trouble is that such legislation demands much from the business owners and they prefer to actively reject such laws. The cruel laws of business make business owners think first of all about getting more income and reducing expenses, thus, there is very little chance that they would prefer to sacrifice their positions at the market in order to help save the environment. They prefer to consider such laws to be the measures taken to preve nt them from conducting successful activity. It is essential not to issue the laws, but to act. Four remaining items will really help reduce pollution, thus, the funds should be spent to implement them. The first important step is to establish green spaces or urban forestry. The development of the city demands building new houses and this usually requires eliminating some green spaces (Harding, 2006). However, if such a situation occurs, it is necessary to reimburse the losses by establishing new green spaces near the new building. The second essential step is to improve the roads as good roads help the cars make fewer emissions. This is one of the most expensive measures, but it is very essential to implement it. Promoting fuel-efficient cars is a very important measure that is taken in almost every developed country today. Such measure really can help save our environment and reduce pollution. Certainly, it demands much expense, but the game is worth the candle. Fuel-efficient car s should be manufactured and widely used by the people to save our environment, thus, it is essential to encourage people to use them. The last essential step is random emission testing, and it will serve to evaluate the changes the first three

Friday, September 27, 2019

Radio report about jazz Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Radio report about jazz - Essay Example The instruments played during their Live concert in Belgium in 1958 included trumpet, saxophone, piano, drums and Bass guitars. The concert starts with drums by Art Blakey followed by the rest of the band blowing their saxophones and playing their pianos. The song is classified under cool jazz characterized by hard and fast sound similar to that of Bebop. Such music was popularized by Lester Young between the 1940s and 1960s (Goldersher 83). However, the roles played by instruments differed significantly. For example, drums were accompanied by sticks while walking bass was complimented by Art Blakey in assistance with Lee. The piano was meant to raise the tempo of the cool flow of the song. This is unlike achieving neutrality of sounds through the hard and fast sounds of the drums and saxophone. Moanin’ is also a jazz piece done by Art Blakey & The Jazz Messengers. It was performed in 1958 in the famous Belgium concert. Musicians in the entourage included Bobby Timmons, Benny Golson, Lee Morgan and Jymie Merritt. Instruments, on the other hand, entailed piano, bass guitars, tenor saxophone and trumpet. Moanin’ is a fusion of swing and Hard Bop. Swing was popularized by Duke Ellington because of several band members as noted in Moanin’. ... Art Blakey & The Jazz Messengers performed ‘I Remember Clifford’ in Belgium in 1953 as part 3 of their ongoing concert. The musicians present were Lee Morgan, Jymie Merritt, Benny Golson, and Bobby Timmons. Instruments included pianos, bass guitars, tenor saxophones, mallet drums and trumpets. Use of instruments in this piece was both distinct and significant in projecting the message in the song. The piece being a mixture of Bebop and Modern Jazz because of sentimental beats used piano to match its beats. Alternatively, bass was applied to increase the vocals of other musicians in the band (Goldersher 87). Conversely, decision by Lee not to sing the song and instead concentrate on the mallet drums gave the piece its modern jazz combination. Horn players, on the other hand, infused beats in between breaks to help the tenor in the saxophone. A Night in Tunisia was another thrilling performance of 1958 in Belgium by The Jazz Messengers and was written by Frank Paparelli an d Dizzy Gillespie. Others artists who performed the song include Jymie Merritt, Benny Golson, Art Blakey, Bobby Timmons and Lee Morgan. Instruments comprised of tenor saxophone, bass, piano, drums and trumpet. However, being Afro-Cuban jazz style, the piece had a fusion of African beats similar to soul music with a modal harmony. It has also a minimal influence of the Bossa Nova genre popular in Brazil and also known as West Coast Jazz. The pianist uses low sounds with muted vocals of the trumpeter to produce looping beats with funk feel (Goldersher 82). Bassists and saxophonists, on the other hand, play their miscellaneous percussion instruments to compliment the ride pattern of the piece. However, Lee Morgan is the most appealing soloist in the group because of his

Thursday, September 26, 2019

Capstone Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Capstone Project - Research Paper Example This essay focuses on hospitals that have recently started to incorporate risk management in their operations. The researcher explores the major role of the risk management department is to make sure that the organization does not make unnecessary loss due to Potentially Compensable Events. These are occurrences that can result due to litigation against the providers in health care. Furthermore, health care providers are also forced to compensate the injured patients, doctors and others in such cases. Generally modern hospitals offer varied services like the ambulance, surgery services, emergency services and partial hospitalization and etc. In addition, several health care officers help in the provision of patient care. Thus, today hospitals often have their regulatory body which controls their operations online. Thus, most hospitals have occurrence report system which allows the risk managers to track down online the Potentially Compensable Events and later identify the risk areas in the organization which can be improved. Therefore, there has to be procedures and policies that should be enforced to identify common errors that which have to be reported. The researcher explaines such policies, such as error reporting, that should be impartial as some hospitals have started to embrace an electronic system. This allows the risk managers to receive, analyze and then review the reports online in real time, which leads to successful and quick administration of the problem occured.

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

Elderly Abuse and Neglect in the United States Essay

Elderly Abuse and Neglect in the United States - Essay Example At another context, it involves taking or misusing an elderly persons money or property (Lindberg, 2008). It should be noted that it is not only what is done, but also the failure to do what should be done that can count as elderly abuse; consider situations where the elder is neglected, unfed, and untreated for sickness. This happens in reality, whether done purposefully by the caretaker or merely due to neglect. Actions against the older person such as over- or under-medicating, depriving the elder of food and water, or exposing the elderly to severe weather are all considered as elder abuse, whether intentional or unintentional (Keita, 2007). Elder abuse can happen in hospitals or nursing homes. Take for example the case of Jennifer Matthew Nursing Home in Rochester, New York. An investigation was started at the nursing facility due to suspicions of elderly abuse. Family members agreed that cameras be put in relative’s bedrooms and the living facilities in order to prove negligent care on the part of the nursing facility. The captured videos showed residents left in their own waste for hours, unmoved in their beds for days, in overheated rooms, and left without a call button to ask for help or assistance (ABC News, 2006). The conditions are outright sickening, much more so to think that the nursing staff was just seen watching movies, sleeping and even leaving the facility. It does not reflect well of how elders should be treated, which should be with care, kindness, and attention as they have once cared for us and have been there to watch over us and help us grow. On January 20th 2006, after much controversy, the nursing home was finally closed due to grave cases of neglect. This is not the only case of elderly abuse. Sadly, there are many similar cases of elder abuse across the country. A study conducted by the minority staff of the Special Investigations Division of the House Government Reform Committee

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

I need a 2 page presentation paper on an article including 3 Essay

I need a 2 page presentation paper on an article including 3 discussion questions - Essay Example Through mobilization and political cohesion, examining credentials of the nationals, training of effective military tactics, ensuring economic reforms and establishing a new People’s Republic party in October 1, 1949, the strategy caused a stir to the government led by Kuomintang. Nanking and Shanghai had been seized by Japanese pushing the Kuomintang government to Chongqing. It also resulted to the Nanking massacre (Stavrianos). Because of the Japanese brutality, many Chinese joined the fight through the Red Army. In 1940 in August, the Red Army formed the Eighth Route and New Fourth Army to a National Revolutionary Army commanded by Chiang. This led to a series of attack on the Japanese Army where close to 200,000 Japanese soldiers died. But it was the start of Marxist theory of knowledge where Mao and Yan’an led through such tactics to give China its future. From 1939, a stalemate ensued when clashes between communist troops and Kuomintang began. Later in 1941 the China Communist Party (CCP) had faded. This resulted to a situation where a communist leader had to rise against the current leader Chiang. Saich and Yang continue to say that this was not possible as CCP was still in power. The events that had taken place helped CCP to seek for independence to become nationalist. It was later dissolved when the Russians were unable to continue supporting it as they were at war with Hitler. This came to Mao’s as an opportunity to lead the campaign of rectification in 1942-1944 (89). Cultural Revolution had to take place when the CCP had become ineffective due to its bureaucratic, elitist and brittle ways of functioning. Mao won the battle of cultural transformation and China became one of the most politicized nations. Mao’s thought of reminiscent Christianization of Europe in the middle ages was to wipe out

Monday, September 23, 2019

Decision Paper for System Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Decision Paper for System Development - Essay Example They stated that institutions that hold high growth aspirations must integrate the conventional financial administration systems with superior checklist capacities. In particular, the new billing system that Hillside school seeks to integrate holds the requisite incentives to facilitate effective management of received resources. It provides clear-cut measures and guidelines that that is credible. This paper discuses overall elements that define the Hillside school cash management system with references to its new billing system. Business Problem â€Å"As-Is† billing system that the school operates, presents immense complications that hinders the realization of credible results. The system holds inferior data management procedures and control mechanism that affects confidentiality in cash administration. Indeed, the system hold limited potential to drive the school into its growth prospect especially at the time that it seeks to expand its enrollment capacity. Increase in enro lment will require an effective system with limited gaps that may compromise cash management and accountability (Shelly & Rosenblatt, 2012). The schools deputy head teacher faulted the systems rigidity and stated that it hold no relevance in the contemporary setting where superior billing infrastructure is recommended. The system was designed using Ms word and excel software’s that provided difficulty in the maintenance of records. The school holds a vast amount of student records that range from financial, admission, class allocation, payroll details and production of reliable financial reports. The â€Å"As-Is† system led to severe confusion and duplication of work since it provides inferior incentive that cannot facilitate effective distinction of work done. The schools administration is under obligation to administer proper records as stipulated in the guidelines. They are answerable to the stakeholders on the utilization of resources through clear and structured s ystems. However, this was not possible at some point due to the lapses that the system provided thus prompting the need to integrate the new system. In short, major complications presented by the â€Å"As-Is† system include provision of unclear fee collection process that fails to facilitate transparency. The infrastructure adopted two centers of fee collection through diverse payment schemes that include fixed and variable systems. These fee collection systems exposed the institution to confusion on cash administration (Shelly & Rosenblatt, 2012). Variably, it was integrated with inferior software’s that compromised the superior administration and production of payroll documents, financial reports and student particulars. The system also failed to provide superior control mechanism and processing capacity for credible outcome. It also failed to ensure effective harmonization of student fee schedules especially for students from one family. The diagram below shows the old system’s fee payment techniques that presented immense challenges in ensuring effective cash administration. Process diagram Variable fee payment Fixed fee payment Fixed fee payment Business Process Improvement Business process improvement entails integration of credible operating systems and adoption of best practices that are development oriented. Advancing

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Best Practices in Human Resource Management Essay

Best Practices in Human Resource Management - Essay Example This thesis/dissertation has not been submitted at any other institution or organization. This thesis includes my views that are not associated with the university. Signature: Date: 09/05/2011 ABSTRACT Human resources bear great relevance in the attainment of success in any field. Employees are considered to be assets for organizations in the modern times; it is necessary to take measures to manage employees in an effective manner for the growth of the company. The field of human resources management lacks a set of standard practices that would lead any organization towards a valuable human resource management department. The lack of such best practices provoked this research study. This study aims to investigate the set of best practices that result in effective human resource management activities. The best practices have been described in this thesis, along with their benefits for the growth of the company. ... ing and Development 17 Teams 18 Performance Evaluations 19 Communication 19 CHAPTER 03: METHODOLOGY 25 Project Progress 25 Research Design 25 Data Analysis 26 CHAPTER 04: FINDINGS 28 Regression analysis 28 Critique 31 Research and project plan 31 Analytical technique 32 CHAPTER 05: CONCLUSION 33 Conclusion 33 REFERENCES 42 Appendix B 51 Graphs from results 52 Appendix C 62 Fig. 2 63 CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION Overview of the Research Human resource management involves the management of people to achieve valuable performances, in the presence of a productive working environment. The focus of this type of management is to facilitate an accessible form of management; one which is not rigid and considers the employees as an asset of the organization. The main objective of the human resources department is to keep the employees motivated and committed towards achieving the goals of their respective departments and organization. Human resource processes include factors that influence the str ategic decision making of the organization. Great stress is laid to promote a helpful and supportive culture in the organization, rather than a competitive one. Employee training and development programs bear great relevance for the growth and success of the organization; this aspect also encourages the managers to seek and hire talented individuals from within the company for required positions. Reward management and compensation are also important functions of the human resource department, such as entitlement to annual bonuses on the basis of appraisals and performance measures etc. These factors are considered to be amongst the most important requirements for the development and improvement of any human resource department. These factors have been influenced from the work of few

Saturday, September 21, 2019

iPhone 6 Essay Example for Free

iPhone 6 Essay Apple working on 4. 7-and-5. 7-inch iPhones for 2014 Reuters cites ‘four people with knowledge of the matter’ and as well as claiming the larger display models under consideration they also point to cheaper variants being considered too. Again, we have heard whispers of a budget iPhone for a very long time. Apple is said to be considering such products for the usually cited reason: Samsung. The report suggests Apple is starting to think it needs a broader product portfolio to compete with the Samsung. Apple’s thoughts on the subject are said to include the idea of introducing both 4. -inch and 5. 7-inch iPhone variants in 2014. Asian supply networks claim suppliers have been approached by Apple on the subject of larger smartphone display panels. At present, it’s quite normal to see any rumour surrounding Apple’s next iPhone to be pegged for both the iPhone 5S and the iPhone 6, such is the uncertainty. However, it’s also true that a few select rumours have been aimed at just the iPhone 6 specifically, particularly in cases which suggest the iPhone 6 will come on its own, later, and after a separate and distinct iPhone 5S launch. With the news that Apple is now actively looking into larger display sizes for its iPhone, T3 has created a rather awesome concept video detailing what the end result might look like. Featuring a 5. 7-inch 1080p display and Apple’s A7 chipset, the iPhone 6 concept is one of the best we’ve seen to-date. It also outlines many of the benefits – better gaming, video, and web browsing – that are associated with having a larger screen. The video concept compares the iPhone 6 to the iPhone 5, hinting at how Apple could modify the design of its existing handset to accommodate a larger 5. -inch display. The video even references Apple’s white-background video style in a bid to further suspend belief that what you’re looking at is indeed an official Apple product (FYI – this is definitely not an official Apple video). Whether we’ll one day see an iPhone of this size remains to be seen – 5. 7-inches does seem like quite a jump from the 4-inch iPhone 5. That said, Apple is rumoured to be in talks about producing a suitably larger iPhone for release sometime in 2014. Reuters says this handset will be the iPhone 6. Apple’s next flagship, the iPhone S, is expected to carry much the same design as 2012’s iPhone 5. It’ll keep the same 4-inch display and premium chassis but see some of the internal specs and hardware updated. iPhone 6 Hardware The most recent, and arguably most prominent rumour surrounding the iPhone 6 points to the idea that it’ll feature a next-gen Apple A7 processor, which may or may not, be a quad-core model. The story goes that Apple is soon to begin work on the 20 nanometre A7 chip with the help of TSMC, but that it won’t be ready for production until the first quarter of 2014. In the meantime we’ll be treated to an iPhone 5S on an A6 chip, or possibly an A6X. This does sit with some rumours which say the iPhone 5S will land in June or July, though equally similar rumours claim the model which arrives this summer will be the iPhone 6, which in turn would imply it’ll be the one toting the A6 or A6x chip. Other reports say Apple has been in talks with Intel over a possible manufacturing deal. It’s not clear whether Intel would simply fabricate Apple’s ARM-based designs or if it would create a completely new Intel-based chipset for the iPhone 6. Apple’s iPhone 6 was also name-dropped in reports about next-generation hardware carrying new 5G Wi-Fi and Bluetooth chips, suggesting it’ll hook up to nearby routers and remote devices at much faster speeds. It’s expected the iPhone 6 would have the same storage options as its predecessors – 16GB, 32GB or 64GB with no microSD slot. Could we see a 128GB version, too? Maybe although very little has been said about this aspect so far. A camera upgrade is possible and we could see a 13-megapixel sensor, although there’s some suggestion Apple will stick to 8-megapixels and simply improve the aperture, sensor array and capture features. Allegedly Apple has scheduled to have components for the next iPhone shipped by the end of May in order to hit the Q3 target. It will apparently have an improved processor, which could be the A6X chip found in the iPad 4. The camera will also be updated to a higher megapixel rating, presumably 13-megapixels. The latest rumour suggests a 16-megapixel sensor though.

Friday, September 20, 2019

Microfinance Institutions in Mediterranean Countries

Microfinance Institutions in Mediterranean Countries This paper examines empirically the relation between governance mechanisms and the performance of Euro-Mediterranean microfinance institutions (MFIs) in terms of outreach and sustainability. Specifically, we found that performance-based compensation of managers is not associated with better performance of MFIs. The results identify tradeoffs between MFIs outreach and sustainability depending on larger boards size, and on higher proportion of unaffiliated directors. Moreover, the study shows that the more women there are on a board the better the performance, and reveals that external governance mechanisms help MFIs to achieve better financial performance. This study also allows us to distinguish other factors leading to a better sustainability such as Regulation, the use of individual lending methodology. However, the MFIs active as NGOs seem to be more consistent with their social mission than with their financial performance. 1. Introduction Microfinance is the provision of financial and non financial services to the poor who are excluded from financial/credit markets because they are considered unbankable. Indeed, microfinance institutions has evolved primarily as a consequence of the efforts individuals and assistance agencies committed to the idea of ensuring that the poor people has access to some form of credit. The majority of MFIs claims having a dual mission of reaching poor borrowers (outreach), and being financially sustainable (sustainability). While the social goals of reaching the poorest and poverty alleviation are valid, financial sustainability has emerged as one of the core management and governance issues. The shrinking resources base for donor funds to support the increasing demand for grants and soft loans implies that MFIs will eventually have to support themselves (Ledgerwood, 2000). However, their sustainability will focus on governance structures within the industry. Indeed, as M Labie (2000) observes, in the last decade corporate governance principles have imposed themselves as the basic rules for any well Run Company to follow. The trend has however transcended from traditional business companies but is now part of the globalization process often seen as a tool for standardizing the controlling vision for any major organization in the world. The drive towards Governance has been propelled by a number of factors particularly the collapses of some of the major players in the Industry, the influx of private Equi ty and fall in donor funding. Governance is about achieving corporate goals. The fundamental purpose of MFIs is to contribute to a country development. This involves reaching out to more clients especially the poor (Helms, 2006; Johnson et al., 2006). Not least but now growing in importance especially among donors is the requirement that MFIs achieve financial sustainability. Microfinance practitioners assert that good governance is the key to a successful MFI (Campion, 1998; Rock, Otero Saltzman, 1998; Labie, 2001; CGAP, 2006; Helms, 2006; UN, 2006). In spite of these observations, only few studies have focused on governance and the examination of the linkage of various governance mechanisms and performance (McGuire, 1999). It seems relevant to examine closely the role of various governance mechanisms since MFIs managers control significant resources. Except the study of Hartarska (2005), and those of Mersland, Roy and Strà ¸m, Reidar Øystein (2007), and Cull et al., (2007), no more study attempt to shed light on the link between governance and performance especially in the Euro-Mediterranean countries although it is a very active zone with a microfinance industry quite diverse (NGO, NBFI, Bank) where actors should simultaneously pursue the most effective way of realizing their social objective while achieving superior levels of profitability. While exploiting recently conducted survey by the authors in order to study the efficiency of MFIs in Mediterranean countries, the annual financial reports of the microfinance institutions and other relevant information collected from Microfinance Information Exchange (MIX), this paper aim to investigate the link between governance and Euro-Mediterranean MFIs performance in terms of outreach and sustainability since governance guides an institution in fulfilling its corporate mission and protects the institutions assets over time. As Rock, R, Otero, M Saltzman, S (1998) notes it is a key in guiding management in strategic issues and in carrying out the agreed upon strategic plans. The empirical model explores the joint and individual effect of management compensation, board diversity, and external governance mechanisms on both MFI sustainability, and the depth and breath of outreach while controlling for individual characteristics and, as well as country specific factors. The result s show that performance-based compensation does not improve performance. MFIs with larger boards seem to do better. More independent boards are more effective however. Board diversity (Higher proportion of women) seems to ameliorate outreach. External governance mechanisms especially auditing and regulation improve the financial sustainability. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 deals with the research context. Section 3 briefly reviews the few related studies. Section 4 presents the conceptual framework as well as working hypothesis. Section 5 looks at data description and methodology. Section 6 discusses the empirical findings, and Section 7 draws conclusions emanating from the findings. 2. Microfinance in Mediterranean Experience throughout the world has proven that microfinance help the poor to increase income, built their business, and secure their future by reducing their vulnerability to external shocks. Furthermore, microfinance is often a powerful tool for empowering the poor especially women, to take charge of their economic well-being and those of their families. The Euro-Mediterranean region consists of 21 countries. The microfinance industry in this zone is young with high growth potential. Currently, it is estimated that there are over sixty microfinance institutions (MFIs NGOs), and a potential of numerous other producing credit to poor microentrepreneurs (Ben Soltane, 2008). The majority of these programs are south of the Mediterranean (Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, Tunisia, and Syria). Programs also exist in Spain, France, Italy, Kosovo, Albania, Bosnia, and Croatia (Figure 1). Morocco AMSSF, FMBC, KARAMA, AL AMANA, ZAKOURA Turkey MAYA Bosnia Bossel, EKI, MI-Bospo, MIKRA, Women For Women Palestine FATEN, UNRWA Italy FRD, 10 Talenti Fond S.M.Soccorso Fond S.G.Moscati Tunisia ENDA, BTS Spain CODESPA, WWB Spain Egypt ESED, Lead foundation, DBACD, Al Tadamun France CSDL Albania PSHM, USCA Croatia DEMOS Lebanon Al Majmoua, Ameen, CHF-AM Jordan MFW, AMC, JMCC,DEF Kosovo P4, Meshtekna, Grameen Trust Figure1  [1]  : MFIs delivering microcredit in the Mediterranean. Euro-Mediterranean MFIs aim to provide financial services to low income households, even the extremely poor in a participatory and non-paternalistic development approach to the great interest of the donor community, policy makers, development researcher and practitioners. According to the so-called win-win proposition MFIs should combine the socials goals, such as poverty alleviation and reaching poor households (outreach) with operational and financial self-sufficiency (sustainability) based on access to international financial markets independently from international development agencies. Therefore, MFIs should simultaneously pursue the most effective way of realizing their social objective while achieving superior levels of profitability. The regions top MFIs are openly committed to best practice microfinance. In terms of depth of outreach, the sector has generally moved towards serving more and more of the poor clients. According to the FEMIP and Sanabel study, the Mediterranean represents a potential market for the microfinance with nearly 40 million customers, whereas currently only 9 million people profit from the financial assistance of the companies operating in this sector. The number of borrowers increased of more than 43 % per annum between 2004 and 2006, against 20% on a worldwide scale, an indication that the sector as a whole is reaching more of the marginalized in the society. The regions top MFIs have proven also to have excellent leadership abilities, impressive outreach and growth, as well as a commitment to best practice microfinance. Furthermore, it is estimated that around 85% of the regions active clients are served by sustainable MFIs. 3. Literature review Governance in microfinance has been recognized to be an important issue. However, the biggest problem to microfinance practitioners has been balancing the dual mission of outreach and sustainability. The changing of microfinance environment has shown a move towards sustainability ultimately leading to governance issues as donors funds shrink and equity inflows increase in the microfinance sector. Microfinance institutions have therefore embraced boards and adopted principles of corporate governance to ensure their survival. Investigating the link between good governance and the performance of MFIs in terms of outreach and sustainability is crucial since governance guides an institution in fulfilling its corporate mission and protects the institution assets over the time. However, there is a limited academic studies dealing with this subject, partly due to the lack of data. While using three surveys of rated and unrated east European MFIs from three random samples in the period 1998 to 2002, Hartarska (2005), investigates the relation between governance mechanisms and financial performance. Financial performance and outreach constitute dependant variable dimensions and governance mechanisms include board characteristics, managerial compensation, and external governance mechanisms such as rating, financial statements audited, and supervision. The author finds that performance-based compensation of managers is not associated with better performing MFIs; lower wages suggested for mission-driven organization worsen outreach. She identify also that a more independent board has better ROA, but a board with employee directors gives lower financial performance and lower outreach. Finally, the author concludes that external governance mechanism seems to have a limited role in the study region. In a recent study, Mersland, Roy and Strà ¸m, Reidar Øystein (2007), use a self constructed global data set on MFIs spanning 57 countries collected from third-partly rating agencies. The authors study the effect of board characteristics, ownership type, competition and regulation on the MFIs outreach to poor clients and its financial performance. They found that split roles of CEO Chairman, a female CEO, and competition are important explanation. Moreover, the authors found that larger board size decrease the average loan size, while individual guaranteed loan increase it. Finally, they conclude that there is no difference between nonprofits organizations and shareholder firms in financial performance and outreach. A third study conducted by Cull et al., (2007) looking at MFIs financial performance and outreach as well, with a focus on lending methodology  [2]  , controlling for capital and labour cost as well as institutional features. While using data from 124 rated MFIs, the authors found that MFIs that focus on providing loans to individuals perform better in terms of profitability. Yet, the fraction of poor borrowers and female borrowers in the loan portfolio of these MFIs is lower than for MFIs that focus on lending to groups. The study suggests also that individual-based MFIs, especially if they grow larger, focus increasingly on wealthier clients, a phenomenon termed as mission drift. This mission drift does not occur as strongly for the group-based MFIs. However, no governance variables, such as board characteristics or ownership type are taken into consideration. The limited academic investigation into the link between governance mechanisms and performance of MFIs in terms of outreach and sustainability, and the fact that other governance mechanisms such as the proportion of women in the board remain unexplored justify the importance of a similar study in the Euro-Mediterranean zone, characterized by a very active and quite diverse microfinance industry, that complete formers studies. 4. Conceptual framework and working hypothesis While focusing on the microfinance field, the governance can be defined as the process of guiding an institution to achieve its objectives while protecting its assets. It refer to the mechanisms though which donors, equity, investors, and other providers of funds ensure themselves that their funds will be used according to the intended purposes (Hatarska, 2005). The presence of these control mechanisms is crucial either to align the interests of managers and providers of funds since they may have diverting preferences and objectives, or to monitor the performance of managers to insure that they use their delegated power to generate the highest possible returns for the providers of funds. This notion comes from the agency perspective. It found its origins in the work of M. C. Jensen and W. H. Meckling, 1976 who assimilate the firm to a node of contracts. The explanatory model of the structures of financing and shareholding is founded on the assumption of asymmetry of information and c onflicts of interests between managers and providers of funds. According to M. C. Jenson and W. H. Meckling, agency relationship is a contract under which one or more persons (principal) engage another person (agent) to perform some service on their behalf, which involves delegating some decision-making authority to the agent  [3]  . In this case the relation of agency will relate the principal (owner) and his agent (manager), this last being engaged to serve the interest of the first. From these relations emanates the concept of agency costs, costs which result from the potentially opportunist character of the actors (moral hazard) and information asymmetry between the contracting ones (adverse selection). These agency costs represent the loss in value compared to an ideal situation where there is no information asymmetry and conflict of interests. According to the theorist of agency an organisation is considered efficient if it minimise the agency costs. This purpose can be in tended though an effective governance mechanism. According to Keasey et al., 1997, the most important features of an effective governance framework are ownership structure (including institutional and managerial ownership), CEO (manager) and director (board member) remuneration, board structure (size and composition), auditing, information disclosure, and the market for corporate control. Usually, research literature related to this field use partial measures. In other words, governance studies treat separately the impact of each variable such as compensation, board size, independence and diversity, and external market forces on firm performance. However, since latest studies (Hermalin Weisbach, 2003) identify the complementarities, and the correlation between these mechanisms, this study will investigate the impact of the majority of these mechanisms excluding ownership due to lack of data on ownership structure. The most important attribute that distinguishes microfinance institutions from other is what has come to be called its dual mission of balancing a social agenda or social impact with its financial objectives. The MFI combine a social development mission (provision of financial services to the lowest income population possible), with a financial objectives that drives the institution to achieve self-sufficiency and thereby accomplish sustained service delivery without dependence on subsidies. These dual objectives (social: outreach, and financial: sustainability) make difficult the study of governance of MFIs, especially with their different types: Non profit, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), For-profit Microfinance Institutions, Credit Unions. This challenge is surmounted by formulating and testing hypothesis based on insights from the literature on corporate governance, formers studies, governance in banks and in non profit organizations, and by estimating the impact of the go vernance mechanisms on both sustainability and outreach. 4.1. Internal Governance mechanism The incentives of top management have been characterized as an important mechanism of corporate governance as it ensures the alignment of the management and the shareholders interest (John et al., 2004). In other words, it serves as a mechanism for resolving the conflict of interest among the managers and shareholders. Brick, Palmon and Wald (2006) highlighted that director compensation should also affect performance of a firm. With regards to banking institutions, higher-powered incentives may encourage managers to take higher risks at the expense of depositors, who would suffer if the institution fails; thus low pay-performance sensitivity is suggested (John John, 1993). In fact, it is proved by Adams Mehran, 2003; Houston James, 1995; John Qian, 2003, that pay-performance sensitivity in banking in lower than other industries. Since in non-profit firm there is a growing problem of informational asymmetry between clients and managers (i.e., managers possess many crucial information about the product), it seems that the fixed management salaries is the best choice for mission-driven organizations (Easley OHara, 1998). With the fixes salaries, the managers, indifferent between telling the truth or lying, will find it in his benefit to tell the truth. Therefore, if the client and donors find the information provided by non-profit managers more credible, the firm will be better-funded and better-performed. Hypothesis 1. MFIs whose manager receives a fixed salary will not perform worse than MFIs whose managers receive performance based remuneration. Most guidelines recognize that the board of directors is the focal point corporate governance. The composition and structure of the board have a direct bearing on corporate governance. Board of directors is designate for the purpose of ensuring the alignment of the firm activities and its specified objectives. The board has the duty for making sure that the top managers are behaving in a way that will provide the optimal value for shareholders (Coles et al., 2001). There is a view that larger boards are better for corporate performance because they have a range of expertise to help make better decisions, and are harder for a powerful CEO to dominate. However, recent thinking has leaned towards smaller boards. Jensen (1993) and Lipton Lorsch (1992) argue that large boards are less effective and are easier for a CEO to control. When a board gets too big, it becomes difficult to co-ordinate and process problems. Smaller boards also reduce the possibility of free riding by individual directors, and increase their decision taking processes. Empirical research supports this. For example, Yermack (1996) documents that for large U.S. industrial corporations, the market values firms with smaller boards more highly. Eisenberg et al. (1998) also find negative correlation between board size and profitability when using sample of small and midsize Finnish firms. In Ghana, it has been identified that small board sizes enhances the performance of MFIs (Kyere boah-Coleman and Biekpe, 2005). Mak and Yuanto (2003) echo the above findings in firms listed in Singapore and Malaysia when they found that firm valuation is highest when board has five directors, a number considered relatively small in those markets. In a Nigerian study, Sanda et al (2003) found that, firm performance is positively related with small, as opposed to large boards. Hypothesis 2. Board size should have an inverse correlation with MFIs performance A third common monitoring mechanism advocated by the agency perspective is a board composed of a majority of independent directors. These non-executive or outside directors are believed to provide superior benefits to the firm as a result of their independence from firm management. Under this organizational design, conflicts of interest can be avoided and executive leaders can be evaluated more objectively. The literature suggested that increases in the proportion of outside directors on the board should increase firm performance as they are more effective monitors of managers (Adams and Mehran, 2003). The proportions of the outside directors can be measured in terms of the ratio of outside directors to board size. The positive aspect of having board independence was evidenced in a study by Byrd et al (2001) that highlighted the survival of firms in the thrift crisis due greater proportion of independent directors in the board. Kyereboah-Coleman and Biekpe (2005) found also a positive relationship between proportion of outside board members and performance of MFIs in Ghana. Hypothesis 3. MFIs performance will be affected positively by the proportion of non-affiliated outsiders on the board. Corporate governance literature argues that board diversity in terms of women and minority representation is potentially positively related to firm performance. Board diversity promotes a better understanding for the market place, increases creativity and innovation, produces mores effective problem solving, enhances the effectiveness of corporate leadership, and promotes effective global relationships (Robinson and Dechant, 1997). Fondas and Sassalos, 2000 argue that diversity in board composition via greater female representation will lead to improved board governance and top management control. In microfinance, the study of Coleman, 2006 show that having women in CEOs on MFI boards enhance performance and also the more the women there are on a board, the better the performance. Furthermore, having a high fraction of women in the board would help the MFI understand its customers better so as to separate the good risk from the bad (Mersland R. et Oystein Strom R. 2007). Hypothesis 4. Board diversification and the presence of women and minority will lead to a better performance of MFI. Another principle of effective bank supervision is effective internal audit. Internal audit helps to identify problem areas and to avoid major collapse. The internal board auditor provides independent, objective assessments on the appropriateness of the organizations internal governance structure and the operating effectiveness of specific governance activities. Reporting of all internal audit reports in an accurate and timely manner is essential for evaluation of the institutions status and need for any change in strategy. Policy papers for MFIs stress the importance of internal audit and recommend that the internal auditor reports directly to the MFI board (Steinwand, 2000). Hypothesis 5. MFI allowing their internal auditors to report directly to the board should show higher financial performance. 4.2. External Governance Mechanisms The external governance mechanism can be implemented as a result of the failure or the weakness of internal governance mechanisms. In the microfinance industry donors and creditors are increasingly relying on information from audited financial statement and rating agencies (Hartarska, 2005). These external governance mechanisms are an important mechanism that provides depositors, creditors and shareholders with credible assurances that they will refrain from fraudulent activities. In other words it reduces informational asymmetries between the different stakeholders and the firm (Healy Palepu, 2001). Audited financial statements are an important tool for the assessment of MFIs by regulators and capital markets. They form an important part of the effective corporate governance. The auditors role is to provide a disinterested an objective view of the financial statements of the MFI in the line with generally accepted accounting standards. It is a mean to ensure potential investors and donors that an MFI complies with the accounting practices and managers do not misrepresent financial information. Hypothesis 6. MFIs with financial statement audited achieve better performance than MFIs without financial statement audited. According to Hartarska (2005), in the absence of developed equity and debt market, donors and investors rely on independent evaluation of MFIs performance. A MFIs rating reflects a rating agencys opinion of entitys overall creditworthiness and its capacity to satisfy its financial obligations. The raters evaluate objectively and independently the corporate governance in MFI and rank it on a relative rating scale that would facilitate comparison. Unlike typical rating agencies that rate the riskiness of issued debt, microfinance rating agencies rate the overall performance of the MFI in terms of outreach and sustainability. Hypothesis 7. Rating helps MFIs to achieve better results Many MFIs around the world operating as NGOs have increased their assets, reorganized, and transformed into regulated entities that can capture savings deposits. A regulated MFI has more chance to earn customer trust, and by the way to have a higher financial performance. Hence, regulation is crucial for microfinance sector development since it affect MFI performance by changing the internal rule of the organization. It implies the access to an important and low-cost funding source through the right to mobilise savings. Due to this effect, the MFI win the opportunity to increase the number of clients, but also to increase average loan amounts for existing borrowers. Moreover, if demands to fulfill regulatory requirements divert attention away from serving the poor, and hold back innovation in lending technology that has been the driving force behind MFIsability to serve even poorer borrowers, regulatory involvement will lead to mission-drift (Hartarska, 2007). Therefore, the effects upon depth and breadth in outreach may be uncertain as well, either upon depth or breadth, or a combination of the two (Mersland R. Oystein Strom R. 2007). Hypothesis 8. Regulation may guide the MFIs to fulfill better sustainability, but not to achieve better outreach. 5. Data and methodological issues Data for this study are issued from various sources. The major part comes from a survey conducted by the author in 2006 in order to test the efficiency of microfinance institution in Mediterranean (Ben Soltane, 2008). The performance variables and some governance variables are also obtained from the annual financial reports of the microfinance institutions collected from Microfinance Information Exchange (MIX); a non governmental organization whose object is to promote the exchange of information on the microfinance sector around the world  [4]  . All these information are updated and completed by a questionnaire dealing fundamentally with detailed question on governance addressed to the MFIs in the region. The response rate was 58% with 40 institutions. A special questionnaire was also addressed to the Mediterranean microfinance institutions that dont figure in the MIX MARKET data base. The response rate for these MFIs was weak and near 20%, with four institutions. Due to missed data, only two institutions are taken into account. The final sample comprises 42 institutions working in 20 countries. Our sample is quite representative of the Mediterranean microfinance industry as well as of the governance mechanisms and the performance of MFIs in the region. Following Hartarska (2005) works, our empirical model used to test the hypothesis include five major potential groups of determinants and is on the form: Where is a performance variable for MFI i in country j at time t; are MFI specific variables; are management specific variables; are board-specific variables, are external governance mechanisms; and are the country-specific macroeconomic variables. It is crucial to mention at this level that our choice of a single-equation model is supported by the hypothesis that various governance mechanisms are endogenously determined is not always supported by empirical evidence  [5]  . Since MFIs are special institutions having a dual mission, their performance is measured in terms of outreach and sustainability. Outreach is measured in breath and depth. Breach of outreach (NAB) is the logarithm of active borrowers, depth of outreach (DEPTH  [6]  ), is the average loan size on GDP per capita. Sustainability is measured by return on assets (ROA) which is a standard finance literature measure of performance, and by operational self-sufficiency (OSS). This variable measures how well the MFI can cover its costs through operating revenues. Table 1. Definitions of dependent variables used in analyses Variable Explanation Social Performance: Outreach NAB Logarithm of the number of current borrowers DEPTH The average loan size on GDP per capita Financial Performance: Sustainability ROA Return On Assets OSS Operational Self-Sufficiency MFI specific variables () are MFI size measured by the logarithm of total assets, MFI age measured in years sine commencement, and MFI type measured by three dummies (NGO, Nonbank Financial Institution, and bank). Since further studies (Navagas, Conning, Gonzalez-vega, 2003) show that the type of lending methodology used influences the success of these organization, our study include a variable Individual which is a dummy that takes the value of one if the MFI used individual lending technology. Variables built-in are Fixed-wage, which is a dummy for pay not based on performance, Experience is used to proxy for a mangers quality and is measured by the years of work experience. The board-specific variables contains Board-size, measured by the number of board members; Employees measured as the proportion of MFI employees who are voting board members; Independent measured as the proportion of non-affiliated board members; Women measured as the proportion of women in the board; Internal Board Auditor is a dummy variable that takes the value of one if there was an internal auditor with direct access to the board. The variables included in are Regulation, which is a dummy that takes the value of one if the MFI was supervised by the central bank or other bank supervisory agency; Rated is a variable that indicates whether the MFI was subject to independent evaluation or rating by an outside organization; Audited is a dummy that take also the value of one if there was an audited financial statement in the year t-1. Since MFI are issued from north and south of the Mediterranean, the dissimilarity in economic conditions across countries are controlled by the size of the economy (Economy size), measured by the logarithm of a countrys GDP, and by the average inflation rate (Inflation), measured by the average consumer price index. These variables are issued from the World Bank Development Indicators. We wanted also to build a variable that take account of the institutional differences between countries but we did not find an adequate measure. Table 2. Definitions of independent variables used in analyses Variable Explanation Fixed-wage<

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Rite of Spring Essays -- essays research papers

Almost definitely imitating the act of new life waking in the spring soil, Stravinsky starts the haunting introduction to his world-renown ballet, Rite of Spring, with a high-pitched lone bassoon. The unstable eeriness continues as a horn and pair of clarinets join in the rubato tempo. Just as everything wakes and bursts into life in spring, so does the piece as more and more instruments join in. Each instrument seems to have a different theme, but seems necessary in portraying the thick texture needed to symbolize the inevitable climactic arrival of Spring. After the orchestra has finished its first outburst and almost all instruments have initially come in, a strange harmonic effect is applied to the viola. As the orchestra draws to a climax the sound is cut-off, and the eerie feeling returns as the bassoon takes its initial theme. This time the orchestra does not burst in afterwards. Instead, a string bridge appears and the next movement greets us.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main emphasis of the orchestration in this movement seems to appear in the strings and the Horns. The initial chord is a polychord of Eb 7 and F minor. Heavy strings accompany horns that do not play when expected (polyrhytms). There are accented off beats everywhere (I counted accents on 9, 2, 6, 3, 4, 5 and 3). Thick homophonic strings appear, and are followed by a sudden surge in bassoons and cellos (in different keys- C major and E minor arpeggios all following ...

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

The Life and Works of Langston Hughes Essay -- essays research papers

The Life and Works of Langston Hughes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å" In a deep song voice with a melancholy tone, I heard that Negro sing, that old piano moan – Ain’t got nobody all in this world, Ain’t got nobody but ma self. I’s gwine to quit ma frownin’ and put ma troubles on the shelf.† The above excerpt is from Langston Hughes prize winning poem, â€Å"The Weary Blues.† Hughes, considered to be one of the world’s outstanding authors of the twentieth century (Ruley 148), is a prolific poet, novelist, essayist, playwright, autobiographer, and a writer a of children’s books (Andrews, Foster, Harris 368). David Nicholson says of Hughes, â€Å"He strove to reflect an American reality ignored or distorted by other American writers (504).† The magnificent poet dealt with many struggles in his life and was criticized by many critics for the poem, â€Å"The Weary Blues†, as well as his other works. The lyricist overcame this scrutiny and his struggles, to become a successful, talented writer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Langston Hughes, of French, Indian, and African decent, was born in Joplin, Missouri, on February 1, 1902 (Andrews, Foster, Harris 368). His parents, Carrie and James Langston, were not apart of Hughes’ childhood. Carrie Langston was a small town debutante; she left her son with his grandmother to go live in Kansas City to pursue an acting career (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). As for his father, James Langston, a mixed, cold, man who detested blacks, ran off to Mexico (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). Hughes loved his mother hopelessly and yearned to be with her (Rampersad 4) but his mother showed no interest to be with her son (Bloom, Bloom’s 12). On the contrary, he vigorously loathed his â€Å"runaway† father (Rampersad 4). Without parents, his maternal grandmother, Mary Langston, in Lawrence Kansas raised the writer of verse (Andrews, Foster, Harris 369). Mary’s first husband rode with John Brown on the attack of Harper’s Ferry in 185 9 (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). Her second husband recruited soldiers for the fifty-fourth and fifty-fifth Massachusetts regiment (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). Being married to two men who aided in ending slavery, Mary raised young Hughes on the stories of her family’s ancestors who fought to end slavery (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). From his grandmother he learned the need to struggle on behalf of the ideals of social justice and African American progress (Smith 367). The ab... ... evident. The lasting impact Langston Hughes had on society through the twenties to the sixties is still apparent today. Works Citied Page Andrews, Williams L. Ed.; Foster, Frances S. Ed.; Harris, Tardien. Ed. The Oxford Companion to African American Literature: New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Bloom, Harold. Ed. Bloom’s Major Poets Langston Hughes. PA, Broomall: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999. Bloom, Harold. Ed. Twentieth Century American Literature. Vloume 4. New York, New Haven, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Hall, Sharon K. Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism Yearbook 1986. Volume 44. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research Company, 1987. Marowski, Daniel G. Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism. Volume 35. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research Company, 1985. Rampersad, Arnold. Ed. The Life of Langston Hughes: Volume 1: 1902-1941 I Too, Sing America. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1986. Ruley, Carolyn. Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism. Volume1. Detroit, Michigan: Gale   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Research Company, 1973. Smith, Valerie. Ed. African American Writers. Volume 1. New, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001. The Life and Works of Langston Hughes Essay -- essays research papers The Life and Works of Langston Hughes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å" In a deep song voice with a melancholy tone, I heard that Negro sing, that old piano moan – Ain’t got nobody all in this world, Ain’t got nobody but ma self. I’s gwine to quit ma frownin’ and put ma troubles on the shelf.† The above excerpt is from Langston Hughes prize winning poem, â€Å"The Weary Blues.† Hughes, considered to be one of the world’s outstanding authors of the twentieth century (Ruley 148), is a prolific poet, novelist, essayist, playwright, autobiographer, and a writer a of children’s books (Andrews, Foster, Harris 368). David Nicholson says of Hughes, â€Å"He strove to reflect an American reality ignored or distorted by other American writers (504).† The magnificent poet dealt with many struggles in his life and was criticized by many critics for the poem, â€Å"The Weary Blues†, as well as his other works. The lyricist overcame this scrutiny and his struggles, to become a successful, talented writer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Langston Hughes, of French, Indian, and African decent, was born in Joplin, Missouri, on February 1, 1902 (Andrews, Foster, Harris 368). His parents, Carrie and James Langston, were not apart of Hughes’ childhood. Carrie Langston was a small town debutante; she left her son with his grandmother to go live in Kansas City to pursue an acting career (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). As for his father, James Langston, a mixed, cold, man who detested blacks, ran off to Mexico (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). Hughes loved his mother hopelessly and yearned to be with her (Rampersad 4) but his mother showed no interest to be with her son (Bloom, Bloom’s 12). On the contrary, he vigorously loathed his â€Å"runaway† father (Rampersad 4). Without parents, his maternal grandmother, Mary Langston, in Lawrence Kansas raised the writer of verse (Andrews, Foster, Harris 369). Mary’s first husband rode with John Brown on the attack of Harper’s Ferry in 185 9 (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). Her second husband recruited soldiers for the fifty-fourth and fifty-fifth Massachusetts regiment (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). Being married to two men who aided in ending slavery, Mary raised young Hughes on the stories of her family’s ancestors who fought to end slavery (Bloom, Bloom’s 11). From his grandmother he learned the need to struggle on behalf of the ideals of social justice and African American progress (Smith 367). The ab... ... evident. The lasting impact Langston Hughes had on society through the twenties to the sixties is still apparent today. Works Citied Page Andrews, Williams L. Ed.; Foster, Frances S. Ed.; Harris, Tardien. Ed. The Oxford Companion to African American Literature: New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Bloom, Harold. Ed. Bloom’s Major Poets Langston Hughes. PA, Broomall: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999. Bloom, Harold. Ed. Twentieth Century American Literature. Vloume 4. New York, New Haven, Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986. Hall, Sharon K. Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism Yearbook 1986. Volume 44. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research Company, 1987. Marowski, Daniel G. Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism. Volume 35. Detroit, Michigan: Gale Research Company, 1985. Rampersad, Arnold. Ed. The Life of Langston Hughes: Volume 1: 1902-1941 I Too, Sing America. New York, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1986. Ruley, Carolyn. Ed. Contemporary Literary Criticism. Volume1. Detroit, Michigan: Gale   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Research Company, 1973. Smith, Valerie. Ed. African American Writers. Volume 1. New, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001.

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Oedipus and Maze of Destiny Essay -- Literary Analysis

Responsibility is key to living a life that is one's own. In the play, "Oedipus Rex," by Sophocles, The tragic protagonist, Oedipus, was afflicted with a harsh sense of guilt once he learned that he has killed his father and married his mother. The play presents this appalling outcome through a prophecy that leads the audience to assume that Oedipus, like the rest of humanity, has little control over their destinies. People of the time when the play was first written, as well as many Christians today believe that God has a plan for everyone, but they are still responsible for the choices they make. In a life of uncertainty, people must try not to be afraid of what may lie ahead and press forward. Many tough decisions must be made that will develop aspects of their characters along these paths, which were separately designed for specific people. In this sense, life can be thought of as a maze. In Oedipus's case, he was given a hint about one of the paths within his maze. Another thought that exemplifies the significance that free will holds, is seen in elements of Sophocles' classic, which revealed that Oedipus had more knowledge over the details of his dilemma than he let himself become conscious of. The last idea will reveal how the onset of fear will push people down a treacherous path of risk and pain, which is also seen in the play through multiple characters. Free will is an attribute that all people possess. It could work as a tool to get individuals through the scary twists their lives may entail. It could also work against them in many ways, which depends on the level of human weakness and ignorance. But, the most important assertion that can be made after considering the argument of, "fate vs. free will," is that... ...e individual and lays out the structure of the life that this person was meant to wander. Similar to God, Apollo could only predict the different paths that Oedipus would take. The unchangeable factors of life have a large effect on how a person lives, but this does not mean that they are not the leaders of their own destinies. The knowledge of what was to come made Oedipus’s journey much more complicated, but it was his duty to deal with it in his own way, because this maze was his own to bid upon. Works Cited Sophocles, Frederic Will, and Bernard Knox. Oedipus the King. New York: Pocket, 2005. Print. Sophocles, Frederic Will, and Bernard Knox. "Critical Experts." Oedipus the King. New York: Pocket, 2005. Print. Abcarian, Richard, Marvin Klotz, and Samuel Cohen. Literature: the Human Experience. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2010. Print.

Monday, September 16, 2019

Equity and Trust

Cy pres doctrine. Initial failure: General charitable intention. Re Rymer [1895] 1 Ch. 19, Re Harwood [1936] Ch. 285, Re Satterthwaite's W. T. [1966] 1 W. L. R. 277, Re Spence's W. T. [1979] Ch. 483, Re Jenkins' W. T. [1966] Ch. 249. Re Faraker [1912] 2 Ch. 488, Re Finger's W. T. [1972] Ch. 286, Re Koeppler's W. T. [1986] Ch. 423; [1985] 2 All E. R. 869. Re Lysaght [1966] Ch. 191, Re Woodhams [1981] 1 W. L. R. 493, Harris v. Sharp, unreported (noted [1988] Conv 288, but the case has since gone to the C. A. ). Subsequent failure. Re Slevin [1891] 2 Ch. 236, Re King [1923] 1 Ch. 243, Re Moon [1948] 1 All E. R. 300, Re Wright [1954] Ch. 347. But see also North Devon and West Somerset Trusts [1953] 1 W. L. R. 1260. Why not automatically subsequent failure? And why initial failure in Ulverston? Modernisation of charities. Re Weir Hospital [1910] 2 Ch. 124, Re Robinson [1923] 2 Ch. 32, Re Dominion Students' Hall Trust [1947] Ch. 183, Re J. W. Laing Trust [1984] Ch. 143, Oldham B. C. v. A-G [1993] 2 All E. R. 432. Charities Act 1960 ss. 13,14. [1983] Conv. 40 (Wilson). Re Lepton's Charity [1972] Ch. 276, Varsani v. Jesani [1998] 3 All E. R. 273 (CA). Charities Act 1993, ss. 74-75. Michael Sladen: â€Å"Charities Act 1985† [1986] Conv. 78 (noting that the provisions of the 1985 Act were re-enacted with only minor alterations in 1993).

Tamil Eelam Issue in Indian Politics

————————————————- Politics From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the political magazine, see  The Politic. For other uses, see  Politics (disambiguation). Politics  (from  Greek  politikos  Ã¢â‚¬Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†) is the  art  or  science  of influencing people on a civic, or individual level, when there are more than 2 people involved. Modern political discourse focuses on democracy and the relationship between people and politics. It is thought of as the way we â€Å"choose government officials and make decisions about public policy†. [1] * | ———————————————— [edit]Etymology European Parliament The word  politics  comes from the  Greek  word   (politika), modeled on  Aristotle's â€Å"affairs of the city†, the name of his book on governing and governments, which was rendered in English in the mid-15th century as Latinized â€Å"Polettiques†. [2]  Thus it became â€Å"politics† in  Middle English  c. 1520s (see the  Concise Oxford Dictionary). The singular  politic  first attested in English 1430 and comes from  Middle French  politique, in turn from  Latin  politicus,[3]  which is the  latinisation  of the Greek politikos), meaning amongst others â€Å"of, for, or relating to citizens†, â€Å"civil†, â€Å"civic†, â€Å"belonging to the state†,[4]  in turn from (polites), â€Å"citizen†[5]  and that from (polis), â€Å"city†. [6] ————————————————- [edit]History The history of politics is reflected in the origin and development, and economics of the institutions of  go vernment. [edit]The state Main article:  State (polity) Sun Tzu The origin of the  state  is to be found in the development of the  art of warfare.Historically speaking, all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. [7] Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China and Japan, were considered divine. Of the institutions that ruled states, that ofkingship  stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the â€Å"divine right of kings†. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the longest-lasting political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria[8]  to the 21st Century AD British Monarchy.Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. The king often, even in  absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a  Council  without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors, and others outside the monarchy negotiated for p ower,  constitutional monarchies  emerged, which may be considered the germ of  constitutional government. [citation needed]  Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:[citation needed] 1.Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. 2. Preserving the traditions of the social order. 3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. 4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single individual such as the king. The greatest of the king's subordinates, the  earls,  archdukes  and  dukes  in England and Scotland, the  dukes  and  counts  in the Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts  tribute.One of the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of  military service  a nd the establishment of  lordships  by the king to satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers. [9] [edit]The state and property Property  is the right vested on the individual or a group of people to enjoy the benefits of an object be it material or intellectual. A right is a power enforced by public trust. Sometimes it happens that the exercise of a right is opposed to public trust.Nevertheless, a right is really an institution brought around by public trust, past, present or future. The growth of knowledge is the key to the history of property as an institution. The more man becomes knowledgeable of an object be it physical or intellectual, the more it is appropriated. The appearance of the State brought about the final stage in the evolution of property from wildlife to husbandry. In the presence of the State, man can hold landed property. The State began granting lordships and ended up conferring property and with it came  inheritance.With landed property came ren t and in the exchange of goods, profit, so that in modern times, the â€Å"lord of the land† of long ago becomes the landlord. If it is wrongly assumed that the value of land is always the same, then there is of course no evolution of property whatever. However, the price of land goes up with every increase in population benefitting the landlord. The landlordism of large land owners has been the most rewarded of all political services. In industry, the position of the landlord is less important but in towns which have grown out of an industry, the fortunate landlord has reaped an enormous profit.Towards the latter part of the Middle Ages in Europe, both the State – the State would use the instrument of  confiscation  for the first time to satisfy a debt – and the Church – the Church succeeded in acquiring immense quantities of land – were allied against the village community to displace the small landlord and they were successful to the extent that today, the village has become the ideal of the  individualist, a place in which every man â€Å"does what he wills with his own. † The State has been the most important factor in the evolution of the institution of property be it public or private. 10] [edit]The state and the justice system As a primarily military institution, the State is concerned with the  allegiance  of its subjects viewing disloyalty and  espionage  as well as other sorts of  conspiracies  as detrimental to its national security. Thus arises the law of  treason. Criminal acts in general, breaking the peace and treason make up the whole, or at least part of  criminal law  enforced by the State as distinguished from  the law enforced by private individuals or by the state on behalf of private individuals.State justice has taken the place of clan, feudal, merchant and ecclesiastical justice due to its strength, skill and simplicity. One very striking evidence of the superiority of the royal courts over the feudal and popular courts in the matter of official skill is the fact that, until comparatively late in history, the royal courts alone kept written records of their proceedings. The  trial by jury  was adopted by the Royal Courts, securing it's popularity and making it a bulwark of liberty.By the time of the  Protestant Reformation, with the separation of Church and State, in the most progressive countries, the State succeeded in dealing with the business of administering justice. [11] [edit]The state The making of laws was unknown to primitive societies. That most persistent of all patriarchal societies, the  Jewish, retains to a certain extent its tribal law in the  Gentile  cities of the West. This tribal law is the rudimentary idea of law as it presented itself to people in the patriarchal stage of society, it was  custom  or  observance  sanctioned by the approval and practice of ancestors. citation needed] The state of affairs wh ich existed in the 10th century, when every town had its own laws and nations like France, Germany, Spain and other countries had no national law until the end of the 18th century, was brought to an end by three great agencies that helped to create the modern system of law and legislation:[citation needed] 1. Records:  From the early Middle Ages in Europe there come what are called folk-laws and they appear exactly at the time when the patriarchal is becoming the State.They are due almost universally to one cause: the desire of the king to know the custom of his subjects. These are not legislation in the sense of law-making but statements or declarations of custom. They are drawn from a knowledge of the custom of the people. Unwritten custom changes imperceptibly but not the written. It is always possible to point to the exact text and show what it says. Nevertheless, the written text can change by addition with every new edition. 2.Law Courts:  By taking some general rule which seemed to be common to all the communities and ignoring the differences, English common law was modeled after such a practice so that the law became common in all the districts of the kingdom. The reason why in the rest of Europe, there was no common law till centuries later is because the State in those countries did not get hold of the administration of justice when England did. One of the shrewdest moves by which the English judges pushed their plan of making a common law was by limiting the verdict of the jury in every ase toquestions of fact. At first the jury used to give answers both on law and fact; and being a purely local body, they followed local custom. A famous division came to pass: the province of the judge and the province of the jury. 3. Fictions:  Records and Law Courts were valuable in helping the people adapt to law-making but like Fictions, they were slow and imperfect. Though slowly, Fictions work because it is a well known fact that people will accept a cha nge in the form of a fiction while they would resist it to the end if the fact is out in the open.British parliament Finally there is the enactment of laws or legislation. When progress and development is rapid, the faster method of  political representation  is adopted. This method does not originate in primitive society but in the State need for money and its use of an assembly to raise the same. From the town assembly, a national assembly and the progress of commerce sprang  Parliament  all over Europe around the end of the 12th century but not entirely representative or homogeneous for the nobility and the clergy.The clergy had amassed a fortune in land, about one-fifth of all Christendom but at the time, in the 12th and 13th centuries, the Church was following a policy of isolation; they adopted the rule of  celibacy  and cut themselves from domestic life; they refused to plead in a secular court; they refused to pay taxes to the State on the grounds that they had a lready paid it to the  Pope. Since the main object of the king in holding a national assembly was to collect money, the Church could not be left out and so they came to Parliament.The Church did not like it but in most cases they had to come. [citation needed] The medieval Parliament was complete when it represented all the states in the realm: nobles, clergy, peasants and craftsmen but it was not a popular institution mainly because it meant  taxation. Only by the strongest pressure of the Crown were Parliaments maintained during the first century of their existence and the best proof of this assertion lies in the fact that in those countries where the Crown was weak, Parliament ceased to exist.The notion that parliaments were the result of a democratic movement cannot be supported by historical facts. Originally, the representative side of Parliament was solely concerned with money; representation in Parliament was a liability rather than a privilege. It is not uncommon that a n institution created for one purpose begins to serve another. People who were asked to contribute with large sums of money began to  petition. Pretty soon, sessions in Parliament would turn into bargaining tables, the king granting petitions in exchange for money.However, there were two kinds of petitions, one private and the other public and it was from this last that laws were adopted or  legislation  originated. The king as head of State could give orders to preserve territorial integrity but not until these royal enactments were combined with public petition that successful legislation ever took place. Even to the present day, this has always been the basis of all successful legislation: public custom is adopted and enforced by the State. citation needed] In the early days of political representation, the  majority  did not necessarily carry the day and there was very little need for contested  elections  but by the beginning of the 15th century, a seat in Parliam ent was something to be cherished. Historically speaking, the dogma of the equality of man is the result of the adoption of the purely practical machinery of the majority but the adoption of the majority principle is also responsible for another institution of modern times: the  party system.The party system is an elaborate piece of machinery that pits at least two political candidates against each other for the vote of an electorate; its advantage being equal representation interesting a large number of people in politics; it provides effective criticism of the government in power and it affords an outlet for the ambition of a large number of wealthy and educated people guaranteeing a consistent policy in government. citation needed] These three institutions: political representation, majority rule and the party system are the basic components of modern political machinery; they are applicable to both central and local governments and are becoming by their adaptability ends in th emselves rather than a machinery to achieve some purpose. [12] [edit]The state and the executive system The administration is one of the most difficult aspects of government.In the enactment and enforcement of laws, the victory of the State is complete but not so in regards to administration the reason being that it is easy to see the advantage of the enactment and enforcement of laws but not the administration of domestic, religious and business affairs which should be kept to a minimum by government. [citation needed] The  German Chancellery(Bundeskanzleramt) in  Berlin Originally, the state was a military institution. For many years, it was just a territory ruled by a king who was surrounded by a small elite group of warriors and court officials and it was basically rule by force over a larger mass of people.Slowly, however, the people gained political representation for none can really be said to be a member of the State without the right of having a voice in the direction o f policy making. One of the basic functions of the State in regards to administration is maintaining peace and internal order; it has no other excuse for interfering in the lives of its citizens. To maintain law and order the State develops means ofcommunication. Historically, the â€Å"king's highway† was laid down and maintained for the convenience of the royal armies not as an incentive to  commerce.In almost all countries, the State maintains the control of the means of communication and special freedoms such as those delineated in the  First Amendment to the United States Constitution  are rather limited. The State's original function of maintaining law and order within its borders gave rise to  police  administration which is a branch of the dispensation of  Justice  but on its preventive side, police jurisdiction has a special character of its own, which distinguishes it from ordinary judicial work.In thecurfew, the State shows early in history the import ance of preventing disorder. In early days, next to maintaining law and order, the State was concerned with the raising of  revenue. It was then useful to the State to establish a  standard  of  weights and measures  so that value could be generally accepted and finally the State acquired a  monopoly  of  coinage. The regulation of labor by the State as one of its functions dates from the 15th century, when  the Black Plague  killed around half of the European population. citation needed] The invariable policy of the State has always been to break down all intermediate authorities and to deal directly with the individual. This was the policy until  Adam Smith's  The Wealth of Nations  was published promoting a strong public reaction against State interference. By its own action, the State raised the issue of the poor or the State relief of the  indigent. The State, of course, did not create poverty but by destroying the chief agencies which dealt with t s uch as the village, the church and the  guilds, it practically assumed full responsibility for the poor without exercising any power over it. The Great Poor Law Report of 1834 showed that  communism  was widespread in the rural areas of England. In newly developed countries such as the  colonies  of the  British Empire, the State has refused to take responsibility for the poor and the relief of poverty, although the poor classes lean heavily towards State socialism. citation needed] Taking into account the arguably significant powers of the State, it is only natural that in times of great crisis such as an overwhelming calamity the people should invoke general State aid. [citation needed] Political representation has helped to shape State administration. When the voice of the individual can be heard, the danger of arbitrary interference by the State is greatly reduced. To that extent is the increase of State activity popular.There are no hard and fast rules to limit Stat e administration but it is a fallacy to believe that the State is the nation and what the State does is necessarily for the good of the nation. In the first place, even in modern times, the State and the nation are never identical. Even where â€Å"universal suffrage† prevails, the fact remains that an extension of State administration means an increased interference of some by others, limiting freedom of action. Even if it is admitted that State and nation are one and the same, it is sometimes difficult to admit that State administration is necessarily good.Finally, the modern indiscriminate advocacy of State administration conceals the fallacy that State officials must necessarily prove more effective in their action than  private enterprise. Herein lies the basic difference between  Public  and  Business Administration; the first deals with the  public weal  while the second deals basically in  profit  but both require a great deal of  education  and  ethical conduct  to avoid the mishaps inherent in the relationship not only relating to  business  and  labour  but also the State and the people administrating its  government. 13] [edit]The varieties of political experience The swearing of the oath of ratification of the treaty of Munster in 1648  (1648) by  Gerard ter Borch. According to Aristotle, States are classified into  monarchies,  aristocracies,  timocracies,  democracies,  oligarchies, and  tyrannies. Due to an increase in knowledge of the history of politics, this classification has been abandoned. Generally speaking, no form of government could be considered the absolute best, as it would have to be the perfect form under all circumstances, for all people and in all ways.As an institution created by the human nature togovern society, it is vulnerable to  abuse by people for their own gain, no matter what form of government a state utillises, thus posing that there is no ‘best' form of government. All States are varieties of a single type, the sovereign State. All the  Great Powers  of the modern world rule on the principle of  sovereignty. Sovereign power may be vested on an individual as in an  autocratic government  or it may be vested on a group as in a constitutional government.Constitutions  are written documents that specify and limit the powers of the different branches of government. Although a Constitution is a written document, there is also an unwritten Constitution. The unwritten constitution is continually being written by the Legislative branch of government; this is just one of those cases in which the nature of the circumstances determines the form of government that is most appropriate. Nevertheless, the written constitution is essential.England did set the fashion of written constitutions during the  Civil War  but after the  Restoration  abandoned them to be taken up later by the  American Colonies  after their  ema ncipation  and then  France  after the  Revolution  and the rest of Europe including the European colonies. [citation needed] There are two forms of government, one a strong central government as in France and the other a local government such as the ancient divisions in England that is comparatively weaker but less bureaucratic.These two forms helped to shape the  federal government, first in Switzerland, then in the United States in 1776, in Canada in 1867 and in Germany in 1870 and in the 20th century,  Australia. The Federal States introduced the new principle of agreement or  contract. Compared to a  federation, a  confederation's singular weakness is that it lacks  judicial power. [citation needed]  In the  American Civil War, the contention of the Confederate States that a State could  secede  from the Union was untenable because of the power enjoyed by the Federal government in the executive, legislative and judiciary branches. citation needed] According to professor  A. V. Dicey  in  An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, the essential features of a federal constitution are: a) A written supreme constitution in order to prevent disputes between the jurisdictions of the Federal and State authorities; b) A distribution of power between the Federal and State governments and c) A Supreme Court vested with the power to interpret the Constitution and enforce the law of the land remaining independent of both the executive and legislative branches. 14] [edit]Political party Main article:  political party A  political party  is a  political organization  that typically seeks to attain and maintain political power within  government, usually by participating in  electoral campaigns, educational outreach or protest actions. Parties often espouse an expressed  ideology  or vision bolstered by a written  platform  with specific goals, forming a  coalition  among disparate interests . [citation needed] [edit]World politics The  United Nations  building in  New York CityThe 20th century witnessed the outcome of two world wars and not only the rise and fall of the  Third Reich  but also the rise and fall of  communism. The development of the  Atomic bomb  gave the United States a more rapid end to its conflict in Japan in  World War II. Later, the development of the  Hydrogen bombbecame the ultimate weapon of mass destruction. The  United Nations  has served as a forum for peace in a world threatened by nuclear war. â€Å"The invention of nuclear and space weapons has made war unacceptable as an instrument for achieving political ends. [15]  Although an all-out final nuclear holocaust is out of the question for man, â€Å"nuclear blackmail† comes into question not only on the issue of world peace but also on the issue of national sovereignty. [16]  On a Sunday in 1962, the world stood still at the brink of nuclear war during th e October  Cuban missile crisis  from the implementation of  U. S. vs  U. S. S. R. nuclear blackmail policy. ————————————————- [edit]As an academic disciplinePolitical science, the study of politics, examines the acquisition and application of  power. [17]  Political scientist  Harold Lasswell  defined politics as â€Å"who gets what, when, and how†. [18]  Related areas of study include  political philosophy, which seeks a rationale for politics and an ethic of public behaviour,  political economy, which attempts to develop understandings of the relationships between politics and the economy and the governance of the two, and  public administration, which examines the practices of governance. citation needed]  The philosopher  Charles Blattberg, who has defined politics as â€Å"responding to conflict with dialogue,† offers an acco unt which distinguishes political philosophies from political ideologies. [19] The first academic chair devoted to politics in the United States was the chair of history and political science at  Columbia University, first occupied by Prussian emigre  Francis Lieber  in 1857. [20] ————————————————- [edit]SpectraPolitical views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the Inglehart–Welzel Cultural Map of the World based on the  World Values Survey. Main article:  Political spectrum Several different  political spectrums  have been proposed. [edit]Left-right politics Main article:  Left–right politics Recently in history, political analysts and politicians divide politics into  left wing  and  right wing  politics, often also using the idea of center politics as a middle path of policy between the right and left.This classificat ion is comparatively recent (it was not used by  Aristotle  or  Hobbes, for instance), and dates from theFrench Revolution  era, when those members of the  National Assembly  who supported the  republic, the common people and a  secular society  sat on the left and supporters of the  monarchy,  aristocratic  privilege and the Church sat on the right. [21] The meanings behind the labels have become more complicated over the years. A particularly influential event was the publication of the  Communist Manifesto  by  Karl Marx  and  Frederick Engels  in 1848.The  Manifesto  suggested a course of action for a  proletarian  revolution to overthrow thebourgeois  society and abolish private property, in the belief that this would lead to a  classless  and  stateless  society. [citation needed] The meaning of left-wing and right-wing varies considerably between different countries and at different times, but generally speaking, it can be said that the right wing often values  tradition  and  social stratification  while the left wing often values  reform  and  egalitarianism, with the center seeking a balance between the two such as with  social democracy  or  regulated capitalism. 22] According to  Norberto Bobbio, one of the major exponents of this distinction, the Left believes in attempting to eradicate social inequality, while the Right regards most social inequality as the result of ineradicable natural inequalities, and sees attempts to enforce social equality as utopian or authoritarian. [23] Some ideologies, notably  Christian Democracy, claim to combine left and right wing politics; according to Geoffrey K.Roberts and Patricia Hogwood, â€Å"In terms of ideology, Christian Democracy has incorporated many of the views held by liberals, conservatives and socialists within a wider framework of moral and Christian principles. â€Å"[24]  Movements which claim or formerly claimed to be above the left-right divide include  Fascist  Terza Posizioneeconomic politics in Italy,  Gaullism  in France,  Peronism  in Argentina, and  National Action Politics  in Mexico. [citation needed] [edit]Authoritarian-libertarian politics Authoritarianism  and  libertarianism  refer to the amount of individual  freedom  each person possesses in that society relative to the state.One author describes authoritarian political systems as those where â€Å"individual  rights  and goals are subjugated to group goals, expectations and conformities†,[25]  while libertarians generally oppose the  state  and hold theindividual  as  sovereign. In their purest form, libertarians are  anarchists, who argue for the total abolition of the state, of  Political parties  and of  other political entities, while the purest authoritarians are, theoretically,  totalitarians  who support state control over all aspects of  society. citation nee ded] For instance,  classical liberalism  (also known as  laissez-faire  liberalism,[26]  or, in much of the world, simply  liberalism) is a doctrine stressing individual freedom and  limited government. This includes the importance of human rationality, individual  property rights,  free markets,  natural rights, the protection of  civil liberties, constitutional limitation of government, and individual freedom from restraint as exemplified in the writings of  John Locke,  Adam Smith,  David Hume,  David Ricardo,  Voltaire,  Montesquieu  and others.According to the libertarian  Institute for Humane Studies, â€Å"the libertarian, or ‘classical liberal,' perspective is that individual well-being, prosperity, and social harmony are fostered by ‘as much liberty as possible' and ‘as little government as necessary. ‘†[27]  For anarchist political philosopher  L. Susan Brown  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Liberalism and  anarchism   are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual  freedom  yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations. [28] ————————————————- [edit]Political corruption Main article:  Political corruption â€Å"| Unlimited power is apt to corrupt the minds of those who possess it. | †|   | —  William Pitt the Elder[29]| | Political corruption  is the use of legislated powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as  repression  of political opponents and general police brutality, is not considered political corruption.Neither are illegal acts by private persons or corporations not directly involved with the government. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is directly related to their official duties. [citation needed] Forms of corruption vary, but include  bribery,  extortion,  cronyism,  nepotism,  patronage,  graft, and  embezzlement. While corruption may facilitate  criminal enterprise  such as  drug trafficking,  money laundering, and  trafficking, it is not restricted to these activities. citation needed]  The activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, certain political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another. In some cases, government officials have broad or poorly defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. [citation needed] Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually. [30]  A state of unrestrained